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[|Final Review] Write down and learn the items in the presentation.

1/7/2010 [] Copy the text in white and answer the items in the presentation.
 * 1) 68 [|Heredity]

1/6/2010 Match the words underlined above with the phrases below. Some are used more than once. 1. the way recessive traits are written 2. the way dominant traits are written 3. the genetic make-up of an individual 4. the way an individual looks. 5. disorder carried on the X or Y chromosome 6. female genotype 7. male genotype 8. genotype consisting of an upper and lower case letters 9. a genotype consisting of two lower case letters 10. trait always exhibited if its allele is present 11. trait only exhibited if two of its allele are present 12. organisms that receive the same alleles for a trait 13. organisms that receive different alleles for a trait 14. purebred 15. hybrid
 * 1) 67 **Punnett Squares:**
 * __Alleles__ are the code for a trait on a section of DNA.
 * Each trait has two alleles that are represented by letters.
 * Dominant traits get __capital letters__ and recessive traits get __lowercase__ letters.
 * Different alleles are represented by the same letter of different sizes (cases).
 * A __genotype__ is represented by two letters indicating the alleles present or the genetic make up.
 * A __phenotype__ is the form of the trait observed.
 * The __dominant__ phenotypes will be seen over __recessive__ phenotypes if a dominant allele is present.
 * __Homozygous__ is when the letters are the same.
 * __Heterozygous__ is when the letters are different.
 * __Purebreds__ are homozygous while __hybrids__ are heterozygous
 * __Sex-linked__ genes are carried on the X or Y chromosome
 * Letters used to indicate alleles that determine sex are __x__ and __y__ . Males are heterozygous and females are homozygous.

Answer each letter of the following: 16. Homozygous X Homozygous Cross a. Write a genotype for a homozygous-dominant trait. b. Write a genotype for a homozygous-recessive trait. c. Write a genotype for a heterozygous trait. d. Using the same letter make and make a Punnett square for the cross between individuals or organisms that are homozygous-dominant and homozygous-recessive. e. Write the genotype of the offspring followed by its probability of occurring.

17. Homozygous X Heterozygous Cross a. Write a genotype for a homozygous trait. b. Write a genotype for a heterozygous trait. c. Using the same letter make a Punnett square for the cross between individuals or organisms that are homozygous and heterozygous. d. Write each genotype of the offspring followed by its probability of occurring.

18. Heterozygous X Heterozygous Cross a. Write the genotype for a heterozygous trait. b. Using the same letter make a Punnett square for the cross between two heterozygous people or organisms. c. Write each genotype of the offspring followed by its probability of occurring.

Test crosses - If a organism shows a recessive trait it is homozygous-recessive. The genotype of an organism showing a dominant trait can be determined by crossing it with a homozygous-recessive. For example, the genotypes BB and Bb both result in brown eyes.

21. Make a Punnett square using the sex genotypes. What is the probability for having a boy or girl?

1/04/2010 Write the white text in the presentation as notes [|Genetic Terms and Squares]
 * 1) 66 Genetic Terms and Squares Notes

Extra Credit: Make a cartoon of the animation at this link: DNA Replication []

12/17/09 Read and answer the questions
 * 1) 65 Mendel's Traits and Factors

12/16 Copy A, B, C, and D. Represent each with the picture provided. Copy the 11 Questions and fill in the blank.
 * 1) 64 Patterns of Inheritance

Mendel's Experiment: A. Mendel crossed plants with contrasting traits that he called the P Generation. Each parent plant had two factors/genes for its form of the trait such as tall or short.

B. F1 Generation – there was no mixing of the two traits and every plant had the same trait. Each plant had one factor /gene for the dominant trait and one factor for the recessive trait.

C. F2 Generation – Mendel let the F1 Generation self-pollinate to produce the F2 Generation. 3 / 4 of the F2 Generation had the dominant trait while 1 / 4 had the recessive trait. Mendel explained this by reasoning that each plant had two factors for a trait and one was dominant over the other.

D. Of the Plants in the F2 Generation: 1 / 4 had two factors for the dominant trait 1 / 2 had one dominant and one recessive factor 1 / 4 had two factors for the recessive trait PATTERNS OF INHERITANCE Our modern understanding of inheritance starts in the 19th century with the Augustine monk Gregor Mendel. In his spare time he studied inheritance in many plant species. For centuries prior to Mendel’s birth, farmers knew that if they bred from the cows that gave the most milk, or from the wheat with the largest grains, they were likely to get these useful characteristics again. The results of breeding, however, did not always turn out just as expected. Sometimes the offspring had useful characteristics; at other times they did not. The useful characteristics that did not appear in the ‘children’, sometimes reappeared in ‘grandchildren’.

In 1865, Mendel provided the first scientific explanation for the puzzle of inheritance through a series of experiments carried out by breeding pea plants with parents of different types or varieties. Other people had carried out similar work before, but had been unable to identify any clear patterns from their observations. This was mainly because they had looked at the overall appearance of the plants, which seemed to show that the offspring were a ‘blend’ of features from both parents. In the same way clear patterns of inheritance are hard to see in humans; most people seem a mix of their parents. However, some clear patterns can be traced, especially with inherited diseases.

Mendel’s breakthrough was to focus his attention on a few carefully chosen characteristics such as the shape of the seeds and the height of the plant. By crossing peas with different characteristics, Mendel demonstrated the effects of the gene for tallness were concealing the gene for shortness. He therefore described tallness as ‘dominant’ over shortness. In following experiments, he was able to show that other characteristics were ‘recessive’ and required the same information from both parents to display that particular characteristic.

First generation - When Mendel crossed tall and short plants, all the first generation plants were tall. Each of these parents contained a pair of genes that controlled the plant size (tall or short). Every plant in the first generation had one height gene for tallness and another for shortness. The tall gene came from one parent and the short gene came from the other. The dominant gene for tallness was concealing the copy for shortness. In the first generation all the plants were tall because tallness is dominant over shortness in pea plants.

Second generation - When Mendel crossed the first generation with itself by self-pollination a second generation was produced. In the second generation, three-quarters of the plants were tall and one quarter were short. In the second generation, the gene for 'shortness' was revealed. One of every four plants of the second generation was short. Mendel figured out that the disappearing and reappearing of a trait happens because each plants has two genes for it, which he called factors. A trait reappears when an organism gets two recessive genes for the trait. The trait that did not disappear is dominant and the reappearing trait is recessive. The two forms of a gene is called alleles. In this case there are tall alleles and short alleles. From these two alleles, the second generation had four possible combinations of genes: 1. two tall genes, one from each parent plant; 2. a tall and a short gene, one from each parent plant; 3. a short and a tall gene, one from each parent plant; 4. two short genes, one from each parent plant. The allele for tallness is dominant, so in three out of four cases, tall plants were produced. One out of four plants was short because it had two recessive alleles for being short. Recessive traits only appear when there are two copies of the recessive form of the gene.

Inheritance principles: a. An individual’s inherited characteristics are controlled by units of information that we now call genes. b. Humans have pairs of genes for each trait. c. Each parent passes on one copy of each gene to its offspring. d. There is an equal chance of either gene being passed on. e. Some characteristics may be dominant over others and recessive ones may not be evident in all generations.

1. ........... started our modern understanding of inheritance. 2. Mendel focused on carefully chosen .......... for his experiments rather than overall appearance. 3. Mendel demonstrated that some ........... characteristics could conceal genes of a contrasting trait. 4. Recessive characteristics are only present when the same .......... is received from both parents. 5. First generation plants had one height gene for ......... and another for .......... . 6. The first generation plants were all tall because tallness is .......... over shortness in pea plants. 7. The second generation was produced by having the first generation only .......... . 8. A trait .......... when an organism gets two recessive genes for the trait. 9. Units of information that control traits are called ....... . 10. Each parent passes on .......... copy of each gene to its offspring. 11. There is an ......... chance for either of the parents alleles to be pass to their offspring because homologous chromosomes separate randomly in meiosis I.

12/15 Mendel and Genetics For thousands of years farmers and herders have been selectively breeding their plants and animals to produce more useful hybrids. It was somewhat of a hit or miss process since the actual mechanisms governing inheritance were unknown. A number of incorrect hypotheses were suggested to explain hereditary including one by Darwin. In the 1850s, Gregor Mendel finally discovered how the genetic mechanisms of selective breeding work. Mendel used carefully controlled experiments and math called statistics to gain this knowledge. The significance Mendel's work was not recognized by other scientist for 50 years.
 * 63

Mendel used plants in his genetic experiments, but the mechanisms of heredity are the same for animals. Through selective crossbreeding of common pea plants over many generations, Mendel discovered that certain traits show up in the offspring without any blending of contrasting characteristics. For instance, pea flowers are either purple or white-- intermediate colors do not appear in the offspring of pea plants. Pea plants have seven easily recognize traits that occur only in one of two forms. These traits are: lower position, plant height, pod appearance, pod color, seed texture, seed color, flower color. Mendel's choice of traits did not blend was another reason for his success.

Pea plants worked well for Mendel's experiments because they have both male and female reproductive parts. As a result, they can either self-pollinate or cross-pollinate with another plant. Pollination occurs when pollen grains are transferred from the male parts to the female parts of flowers. To make a pea plant solely self-pollinate, the flower only has to be covered to stop cross-pollination. To make a pea plant only cross-pollinate, the male parts of its flowers must be removed. Pollen is then transferred by hand from another flower to this flower with only female parts. This pollinated flower then must also be covered.

Mendel started his experiments with true-breeding plants for each different trait for each characteristic. Plants with contrasting traits of a single characteristic were then crossed. For example, plants with purple flowers were crossed with white flowered plants. These true-breeding plants were called the P generation. The offspring of the the P generation were called the F1 generation. Next, the F1 generation was allowed to self pollinate to produce yet another generation. The offspring of the F1 generation was called the F2 generation. In this way, the offspring of two generations of crosses were named and studied.

When Mendel did the crosses describe above, he always got the same results. When he crossed the P generation with contrasting traits, all the offspring called the F1 generation only showed one of the two traits. For example, when true-breeding purple and white flowers were crossed, all the F1 generation had purple flowers. The F1 generation was then allowed to self-pollinate to produce the F2 generation. Despite having only purple flowers, the F1 generation always produced a F2 generation with both purple and white flowers. In fact, three-fourths of the flowers of the F2 generation were always purple and one-fourth were always white. From these results Mendel concluded that a pair of factors must control each of the traits he studied. Today, we know that an offspring has two genes for each trait and one gene comes from each of their parents.

Mendel observed that one of the two contrasting traits would totally disappeared in the F1 generation, but reappeared in the F2 generation. From this, Mendel said that one form of a trait was dominant over the other trait. He called the form of the trait that did not disappear dominant and the trait that reappeared recessive. Mendel reasoned that all of the F1 generation got a dominant factor for the trait from one parent and a recessive factor from the other. He also reasoned that one quarter of the F2 generation would get two dominant factors from their parent plants. Plus, half of the F2 generation would get one dominant and one recessive from their parents. Finally, one quarter of the F2 generation would get two recessive factors from their parents. This explained why three quarters of the F2 generation would show one form of a characteristic and one quarter would show the other form.

Mendel determined that characteristic pass from parents to offspring as pairs of factors. The offspring gets one of these factors from each parent. Today we call these factors genes which are sections of DNA code on chromosomes. The genes for a characteristic can have different forms. For example, purple vs. white flower color. The different forms of a gene for a characteristic are called alleles. So, one plant may have two alleles for purple flowers while another may two alleles for white flowers. Still others plants may have one allele for purple flowers and the other allele for white flowers. The word allele is used to indicate the form of a gene for a characteristic. Mendel reasoned that a pair of factors must control each characteristic and these pairs are called alleles.

Copy and fill in the blanks. 1. .......... discovered how the genetic mechanisms of selective breeding work. 2. Mendel used .......... experiments and .......... to determine how the mechanisms of heredity work. 3. Certain traits show up in the offspring without any ........ of contrasting characteristics. 4. Intermediate flower colors .......... appear in the offspring of pea plants. 5. If a flower pollinates itself, this is called ..... . 6. .......... is when a flower pollinates another flower. 7. Cross-pollination can be stopped by .......... . 8. Self-pollination can be stopped by ......... . 9. The P generation consisted of plants with .......... traits/characteristics like tall or short. 10. The .......... was produced by crossing true-breeding, parent, plants with contrasting traits/characteristics. 11. The F2 generation produced by allowing the ......... to only self-pollinate. 12. The ......... only showed one of the two forms of a trait/characteristic. 13. The ........ showed both forms of a trait in a ratio of three to one. (3/4 with one form and 1/4 with the other) 14. Mendel concluded that traits are controlled by ........ and one factor comes from each parent. 15. All of the F1 generation showed the same trait because a ......... factor was received from one parent. 16. A trait reappeared in a quarter of the F2 generation because they received two ......... factors from their parents. 17. Today we call Mendel's factors .......... . 18. The two forms of a gene are called .......... which produce different forms of a trait like tall or short.

12/14
 * 1) 62 Vocabulary for Section 1 on page173


 * 1) 61 Mitosis and Meiosis Test


 * 1) 60 Study Guide Pages 40, 41


 * 1) 59 Study Guide Pages 39, 40


 * 1) 58 Study Guide Pages 37, 38


 * 1) 57 Study Guide Pages 35, 36

All sections one and two. Section three: Synapsis, Tetrad, Crossing-over, and Independent assortment. Write a phrase that conveys the meaning of the terms.
 * 1) 56 Vocabulary p. 165

Go to the link and answer the numbered questions on the presentation. @http://docs.google.com/present/view?id=dhcd2zxp_3f5xdgdr6&interval=15
 * 1) 55 Mitosis Picture Lab

Copy the green headings as they change and items written in white. @http://docs.google.com/present/view?id=dhcd2zxp_57dbhgpwf7&interval=15
 * 1) 54 Mitosis and Meiosis

@http://docs.google.com/present/view?id=dhcd2zxp_67gfmx54dv Take notes on the presentation at the link above. Copy the notes and answer the questions. 1. During mitosis, a cell's DNA coils into very compact structures called chromosomes. 2. Each chromosome is a single molecule of DNA. 3. The DNA in eukaryotic cells is wrapped around proteins called histones. 4. Non-histone proteins unwind specific regions of DNA when its code is used. 5. Chromosomes have two identical halves called chromatids. 6. The chromosome halves or chromatids are connected at a place called a centromere. 7. X-shaped chromosomes consist of two chromatids connected at a centromere. 8. During Interphase, a cell's DNA is less tightly coiled and is called chromatin. 9. Prokaryotic cells only have one looped piece of DNA, which is attached to the cell membrane. 10. What are the rod shaped structures made of DNA and proteins in eukaryotic cells called? 11. What is the DNA wrapped around in eukaryotic cells? 12. What what uncoils specific regions of DNA to control its activity? What are the two identical house of a chromosome called 13. What are the two identical halves of a chromosome called? 14. What is the place where two chromatids are connected called? 15. What is the less tightly coiled form of DNA that occurs during interphase called? 16. What kind of cell often has a circular DNA molecule? 17. Each species has a certain number of chromosomes. 18. Chromosomes occur in pairs because each parent provides one of each kind. 19. Humans normally have 46 chromosomes consisting of 23 pairs. 20. Chromosomes are categorized as either sex chromosomes or autosomes. 21. The sex chromosomes carry the genes that determine the organism's gender. 22. Sex chromosomes also carry genes or characteristics other than gender. 23. Normally, human females have two similar X-sex chromosomes, while males have an X and a Y. 24. Autosomes look alike and humans normally have 22 pair of them. 25. Organisms receive one copy of each chromosome from each of their parents. 26. The similar copies of each chromosome are called homologous. 27. Homologous chromosomes contain the same genes, but can have different expressions of these genes. 28. Cells having two sets of chromosomes are called diploid. 29. Diploid cells have homologous pairs of autosomes. 30. Sperm and egg cells are haploid cells, which contain only one set of chromosomes. 31. Two haploid cells join to make a diploid cell in fertilization. 32. Each parent provides a copy of a particular chromosome, what are these similar chromosomes call? 33. What are cells called that have two sets of chromosomes? 34. What are cells called that have one set of chromosomes? 35. What term describes the number of chromosomes in sperm in and egg cells? 36. What term describes the number of chromosomes in a cell that forms by the joining of a sperm and egg cell?
 * 1) 53 Chromosome Structure

11/30 Karyotyping Socks Activity http://sciactivitiespage.wikispaces.com/Karyotyping+Socks+Activity Read the content at the link above print out the disorganized socks. Cut out the pictures of 46 socks. 1. Pair up the socks by matching stripes. 2. Save the unmatched pair of socks. 3. Glue the matched pairs from longest to shorest. 4. Glue the unmatched pair at the end. See page 153 in your textbook.
 * 1) 51 Draw Mitosis

Copy and fill in the blanks of the numbered sentences. __Karyotyping Socks__: In the karyotyping activity sock were used to model chromosomes. Socks come in pairs because one is for each foot. Sexually produced organisms have two parents, so they get one chromosome of each kind from each parent. 1. Chromosomes come in pairs because .... Humans have the same number of chromosomes as the number of socks used in this activity. 2. The number of chromosomes in most human cells is .... Diploid cells have pairs of chromosomes like the pairs of socks in this activity. 3. Most human cells have ........... pairs of chromosomes. An organisms chromosome pairs are called by a number based on length and banding. This is similar to how the socks were sorted by length and stripes. Chromosome pairs that match are called autosomes. 4. Humans have .......... pairs of autosomes. The two copies of each autosome are called homologous chromosomes. In the activity socks a matching pair of socks represented homologous chromosomes. 5. ............ chromosomes have the same features and genes for the same traits. In the sock activity there was one pair of mismatched socks. The one chromosome pair that is mismatched for human males are called sex chromosomes. The sex chromosomes of human females are not mismatched, but are still called sex chromosomes. 6. Human males have sex chromosomes that are........ 7. Human females have sex chromosomes that ......... 8. An X and a Y are the sex chromosomes in human ............. 9. Human .......... have two X sex chromosomes. The socks in this activity represented the chromosomes in a cell. There were pairs of socks, so the cell modeled in this activity was diploid. Most cells in the body are diploid and have two sets of chromosomes. 10. In ............. cells the chromosomes are paired, so there are two sets of chromosomes. Some cells have only one set of chromosomes. Modeling this with sock, the cell would have only half of each pair of socks. Egg and sperm cells have only one set of chromosomes and are called haploid. 11. ............ cells have only one set of chromosomes and are sex cells like eggs and sperm. Eggs and sperm with a haploid number of chromosomes come together to make a diploid cell. This would be like the sock from two cells coming together to make a cell with pairs of socks. 12. Haploid cells with ....... set of chromosomes come together to make diploid cells with ....... sets of chromosomes.



11/20 http://sciactivitiespage.wikispaces.com/Bubbling+Yeast+Activity
 * 1) 50 Bubbling Yeast Data and Graph. (Extra Credit)

11/19 Also: Read and answer the questions at the following link to prepare for an activity. Fermentation Quesitons 1-15 Fermentation Pathway
 * 1) 49 Page 153, Questions 1-5 and 8

Fermentation: The two main types of fermentation are based on the products they form. The first type is lactic acid fermentation. This process. Recall that fermentation is an anaerobic process to make ATP. Lactic acid is an organic waste produced by anaerobic fermentation. Instead of forming pyruvic acid, these reactions use NADH from glycolysis to form lactic acid. People use anaerobic species to produce certain kinds of food, like cheese and yogurt. Their slightly sour flavor is a result of lactic acid.

People are exposed to lactic acid in another way. Human muscle cells use a lot of ATP and oxygen to function. During major physical activity like exercising, muscle cells need more oxygen. If muscle cells do not get enough oxygen, they use lactic acid fermentation to produce ATP. As muscle cells use these anaerobic reactions, lactic acid builds up in the cells as waste. This buildup causes sore muscles.

Some anaerobic species use another type of fermentation called ethyl alcohol fermentation. Ethyl alcohol is a colorless liquid waste product produced by anaerobic fermentation. It is also the main chemical in alcoholic beverages. Ethyl alcohol fermentation breaks down glucose into two products, carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol.

People rely on ethyl alcohol fermentation when they use yeast to make bread. Yeasts are aerobic bacteria that perform ethyl alcohol fermentation and glycolysis. When yeasts are put into dough, they separate from oxygen. Yeasts break down the sugars in the dough mixture to get fuel. As they ferment the sugars, they produce carbon dioxide. Bubbles of C02 gas are trapped in the dough and cause it to rise. Bakers allow this process to happen so the dough will rise and the taste is right. The white, soft part of bread has many tiny air bubbles trapped inside the crust. The spaces are where C02 bubbles were trapped during baking.

The process of fermentation is show in the diagram. Fermentation starts with glucose being turned into pyruvate by glycolysis. Glycolysis produces 2 ATP, but it also must turn two NAD+ into NADH. Fermentation turns pyruvate into ethanol releasing carbon dioxide and turns NADH back into NAD+. This keeps NAD+ available so glycolysis can continue. Glycolysis would stop with out the recycling of NAD+. In fermentation, the carbon dioxide and ethanol are waste products produced by yeast making ATP from sugars.

Copy and fill in the blank. 1. The two main types of fermentation are ... 2. Fermentation is an anaerobic process for ... 3. .............. give cheese is slightly sour flavor. 4. When muscle cells lack oxygen, they use ............... to produce ATP. 5. Alcohol fermentation breaks down glucose into the two waste products ......... and .......... . 6. Yeast are aerobic bacteria that ... 7. As yeast ferment sugars, they produce ... 8. Dough rises because CO2 ............ are trapped in it. 9. The many tiny spaces in bread are caused by ... 10. Fermentation starts with the substance ................ . 11. Fermentation produces 2 ATP using the process of ............... . 12. Glycolysis produces 2 ATP molecules and two .............. molecules. 13. Fermentation turns NADH back into .............. . 14. Glycolysis requires ............... to breakdown glucose and will stop with out it. 15. The waste products of fermentation are ...

11/18 Draw the items A through C which are found on the indicated pages. Write the facts listed under each drawn item. A. DNA and the Cell Cycle (page 155) -During interphase, a cell's nucleus looks normal and the chromatin/DNA is spread out. -During interphase, some the chromatin/DNA is being used and all of it is copied. -Cell division is occurring during the yellow and green parts of the cell cycle. -During cell division, the DNA is packaged around proteins into structures called chromosomes.
 * 1) 48 Chromatin/DNA

B. Normal Nucleus (page 79) -This cell is in interphase. The chromatin/DNA is spread out, but is still organized and regulated by proteins.

C. Chromosome Parts (page 152) -Each piece of chromatin/DNA forms a “X” shaped structure called a chromosome during cell division. -Chromosomes have two halves connected at a narrow area called the centromere. -Each of these halves is an identical copy and are called sister chromatids.

D. Detailed Structure of a Chromosome (page 151)

(Get ahead by working on page 39 in the study guide.)



11/17
 * 1) 47 THE THREE STAGES OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION

Stage 1: Glycolysis Glycolysis is the first stage of cellular respiration. It begins the breakdown of glucose. Recall that glucose comes from food an organism eats. Other carbohydrates in food are converted to glucose for glycolysis.

Glycolysis begins by using two ATP molecules. Although cellular respiration makes ATP, some reactions in cellular respiration use ATP. The amount used is small compared to the total amount of ATP made from these reactions.

To begin glycolysis, the cell divides one glucose molecule in half using the two ATP molecules. Each half goes through several reactions. Bonds in the molecules break and release energy in the form of electrons. As a result, NAD+ gets the electrons and two NADH molecules are made. (The third stage of cellular respiration uses these NADH molecules.) Four ATP molecules are created during glycolysis. These ATP molecules can be used as cellular fuel. In addition, two molecules of pyruvic acid are created.

To sum up, glycolysis produces four ATP molecules, two NADH molecules, and two pyruvic acid molecules. These eight products come from one glucose molecule and two ATP molecules. As a result, the overall gain in glycolysis is two ATP molecules.

Recall that mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration. However, glycolysis does not take place inside of mitochondria. Glycolysis happens in the cytoplasm of the cell. The second and third stages of cellular respiration happen inside of mitochondria.

Before the pyruvic acid molecules can move inside the mitochondria, they need more conversion. The cell breaks off one molecule of carbon dioxide from each pyruvic acid molecule. This creates acetic acid. To move into the mitochondria, acetic acid needs help from another molecule called coenzyme A. Coenzyme A and acetic acid bond to form one acetyl CoA molecule and one NADH molecule. Acetyl CoA crosses the membrane of the mitochondria. It releases acetic acid into the mitochondrial matrix. From one original glucose molecule, two acetic acid molecules enter the second stage of cellular respiration. This stage is called the Krebs cycle.

Stage 2: The Krebs Cycle The Krebs cycle occurs inside of mitochondria in the thick fluid called the matrix. This set of reactions is called a cycle. This is because the beginning and the end of the reactions are the same. Two acetic acid molecules from glycolysis enter the matrix. Each acetic acid molecule bonds to the starting molecule in the cycle. From there, a series of reactions breaks and forms new bonds in the molecules.

As the Krebs cycle continues, two molecules of C02 (carbon dioxide) form. They are given off as waste. Most of the C02 from cellular respiration is produced here. As the Krebs cycle continues, an ATP molecule is created. The cycle also creates three NADH molecules and one FADH2 molecule. FADH2 is another electron carrier used in the same way as NADH.

ATP, NADH, and FADH2 are the main products of the Krebs cycle. These products are reactants in the electron transport chain, the third stage of cellular respiration. In total, six ATP, eight NADH, and two FADH2 molecules are made from one glucose molecule. This amount includes the two NADH molecules from glycolysis.

Stage 3: The Electron Transport Chain The third stage of cellular respiration is the electron transport chain. This stage has two parts: an electron transport chain and ATP production. Recall that mitochondria have an inner membrane and an outer membrane with a space between them. The electron transport chain is found in a group of structures inside the mitochondria's inner membrane. In this space are special chains of proteins and electron carriers.

To begin, NADH transfers electrons to the first electron carrier in the chain. From there, the high-energy electrons are passed down the chain of electron carriers. FADH2 also interacts with the electron transport chain. This happens at a point farther down the chain.

Each time the electrons are passed down the chain, a little energy is released. Proteins in the chain use energy to pump hydrogen ions (H+) across the inner membrane of the mitochondria. Hydrogen ions are naturally present throughout the cell. The pumping action of the chain produces a H+ concentration gradient between the two membranes.

As electrons pass down the chain, they lose energy to allow water to form. Electrons from the original glucose molecule lose much of their starting energy. This decrease allows the electrons to react with 02 and H+ to form water.

We discussed in Lesson 1 that the formation of water can be an explosive reaction. Why don't cells explode when they form water? The electron transport chain slowly decreases the energy to reduce oxygen. Oxygen also helps pull the electrons down the chain. The cell uses the water formed at the end of the chain in other ways.

With the help of ATP synthase, the electron transport chain produces ATP. ATP synthase is an enzyme found in the inner mitochondrial membrane. ATP synthase uses the H+ concentration gradient to produce ATP.

Remember that the concentration gradient is created by the proteins in the electron transport chain. As H+ ions collect between the membranes, they move toward areas of lower H+ ion concentrations. ATP synthase uses energy from this movement to bind a phosphate group to an ADP molecule. The result is a new ATP molecule that the cell can use for energy in metabolic processes.

Cellular Respiration Questions 1. How does cellular respiration begin? 2. In what form is energy released from glucose? 3. What molecule receives electrons and what does it become? 4. What are the eight products of glycolysis? 5. Where does glycolysis occur? 6. Where does the Krebs cycle and electron transport occur? 7. What is produced from acetic acid when it enters the mitochondria? 8. In what part of cellular respiration is the waste carbon dioxide produced? 9. What is FADH2? 10. What are the products of the Krebs cycle? 11. What are the two parts of the electron transport chain? 12. Where in the mitochondria is the electron transport chain found? 13. What does NADH and FADH2 give to the electron transport chain? 14. What does the electron transport chain do with the energy it gets? 15. What do the electrons react with and form? 16. What enzyme is used to make ATP using H+ ions?

11/16

__Cellular Respiration__ All cells need energy to do their work. Enzymes use energy in the form of ATP to help reactions happen. Energy is used to move materials in and out of cells. A cell gets this energy from the food an organism eats. How does a cell change the energy from food into the form of ATP? Recall that the reactions a cell uses to create and use ATP are called cellular respiration. You may have heard the word respiration. Respiration is about breathing. When you breathe air in and out, you respire. You breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide. Cellular respiration is the process a cell uses to transform chemical potential to energy. The cell uses this energy for metabolism and growth. The equation for cellular respiration is : C6,H12,O6 + 6-O2 > 6-CO2 + 6-H2O + 36-ATP
 * 1) 46 Cellular Respiration Introduction

This equation shows that cellular respiration uses 02 (oxygen) and produces C02 (carbon dioxide). This is similar to human respiration. The oxygen in the air you breathe in is used in cellular respiration. The oxygen enters the lungs and is absorbed into the blood. The blood carries the oxygen to all the cells in your body. Cells use this oxygen for cellular respiration. In addition to oxygen, cellular respiration uses glucose. Recall that glucose has the chemical formula C6H1206. Organisms use glucose as their main energy source. You get glucose from the food you eat. Cellular respiration produces carbon dioxide. This gas is absorbed back into the blood. The blood carries the carbon dioxide back to the lungs. You breathe carbon dioxide out as a gas.

To sum up, you inhale oxygen into your lungs from the air. Your blood carries the oxygen from your lungs to the cells for use in cellular respiration. Your blood carries carbon dioxide produced from cellular respiration back to the lungs, where it is exhaled.

__How a Cell Gets Energy from Glucose__ How does a cell get energy from glucose? Remember that glucose is a sugar molecule. Glucose has energy stored in its bonds. When these bonds break, they release energy. The energy released is in the form of electrons. The electrons are transferred from glucose to other molecules involved in cellular respiration. The chemical reactions that transfer these electrons are called redox reactions.

The word redox is formed from two words, reduction and oxidation. Reduction refers to chemical reactions in which a molecule gains electrons. Oxidation refers to chemical reactions in which a molecule loses electrons. The two words are joined because one molecule gains electrons from another molecule losing them. The figure above shows that glucose undergoes oxidation and loses electrons during cellular respiration. Through many reactions, the electrons are transferred to the oxygen molecules. As oxygen is reduced, it bonds with hydrogen ions in the cell. The result is water, or H2 0. Water is another product of cellular respiration.

To sum up, you inhale oxygen into your lungs from the air. Your blood carries the oxygen from your lungs to the cells for use in cellular respiration. Your blood carries carbon dioxide produced from cellular respiration back to the lungs, where it is exhaled. When hydrogen combines with oxygen to make water, the reaction is explosive. Combining hydrogen gas and oxygen gas releases a lot of energy quickly. A cell does not force these two gases together. Instead, it uses many chemical reactions to slowly release this energy in a step-by-step process. As this energy is released, the cell uses it to create ATP.

The slow release of energy happens by transferring electrons through several different molecules. Electron carriers are special molecules that help the cell with redox reactions. Specifically, cellular respiration uses an electron carrier called NAD+. When electrons are transferred to this molecule, NAD+ reacts with hydrogen in the cell to form NADH. The many reactions involved in cellular respiration produce NADH. The amount of NADH produced helps determine how much overall ATP is produced.

Cellular respiration involves many different chemical reactions. These reactions are grouped into three stages. They are glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and electron transport. 1. ............... is the reactions a cell uses to create and use ATP. 2. For cellular respiration, you breath in .......... and breath out .......... . 3. Write the equation for cellular respiration. 4. Cells use the ............... you breath in for cellular respiration. 5. ............... that is in the food you eat is also used in cellular respiration. 6. Cellular respiration produces ............... that is breathed out. 7. Energy is released from glucose in the form of ............... . 8. Glucose loses .......... and hydrogen during cellular respiration. 9. Oxygen bonds with ........... during cellular respiration to form H2O. 10. ............... produced produced from the glucose during cellular respiration is exhaled from the lungs. 11. The energy produced when hydrogen bonds with oxygen is used to create .......... . 12. Cellular respiration uses an electron carrier molecule called ............... . 13. NAD+ reacts with ................ to form NADH when it receives an electron. 14. In the 2nd and 3rd stages of Cellular respiration, NADH is use to make .......... . 15. The three stages of cellular respiration are ....



11/13 (textbook p. 120) 1. What does the Calvin cycle produce? 2. What is carbon fixation? 3. Where in the chloroplast does the Calvin cycle take place? 4. What gas goes into the Calvin cycle? 5. What does the Calvin cycle use that was produced in the light reaction? 6. What are C3 plants? 7. Why do some plants have an alternative to using the Calvin cycle? 8. What carbon fixation pathway uses a four carbon compound to hold and transport carbon dioxide to other cells where it later can be used in the Calvin cycle? 9. How does the carbohydrate production and water use compare in C3 and C4 plants? 10. What carbon fixation pathway is used in plants that take in CO2 mostly at night and use various compounds to hold it for use in the Calvin cycle? 11. Explain why the light reaction and the Calvin cycle are dependent on each other. 12. Explain why increased light intensity might not result in an increased rate of photosynthesis.
 * 1) 45 Calvin Cycle Concepts



11/12 1. Reproduce figure 6-1 on page 113. 2. Explain why both autotrophs and heterotrophs depend on photosynthesis to obtain the energy they need for life processes. 3. Reproduce figure 6-2 on page 114. 4. Compare the reactants and products of photosynthesis and cellular respiration. 5. What are the two stages of photosynthesis? 6. Briefly tell what happens in the light reaction. 7. Briefly tell what happens in the Calvin cycle. 8. Give the equation summary of photosynthesis. 9. “Where does the light reaction happen? 10. Tell the relationship between the terms chloroplast, grana, thylakoids, and stroma. 11. What do pigments do? 12. Where are chlorophyll and accessory pigments found in the chloroplasts. 13. What pigment is directly involved in the light reaction? 14. Explain the color change of leaves in the fall. 15. List three substances that are produced when water molecules are broken down during the light reaction. 16. Explain why the splitting of water is important to the continuation of the light reaction. 17. Name the major enzyme of chemiosmosis and the product of chemiosmosis. 18. The molecule that precedes the electron transport chains of both photosystem I and photosystem II is an electron acceptor. What is the original molecule that is the electron donor for both of these systems? 19. Explain how the light reaction would be affected if there were no concentration gradient of protons across the thylakoid membrane.
 * 1) 44 __Photosynthesis Overview__

11/10 http://sciactivitiespage.wikispaces.com/Active+and+Passive+Transport+rw
 * 1) 43 Transport Across Membranes

11/9 Explain: Passive Transport Diffusion Concentration Gradient Equalibrium Osmosis Turgur Pressure Plasmolysis Facilitated Diffusion Carrier Protein Ion Channel Protein Active Transport Endocytosis Exocytosis Phagocyte
 * 1) 42 Transport Concepts

11/6
 * 1) 40 Study Guide pages 27 and 28
 * 2) 41 Study Guide pages 29 and 30

11/5 Sketch and Write: Figure 5-6 on page 104 Figure 5-7 on page 105 Figure 5-8 on page 106 Section Review Questions on page 106 Numbers 1 through 8
 * 1) 39 Active Transport Sketches and Questions

11/4 Finish #38 and start #39

11/3 1. Draw a concentration gradient Give it a title and add high and low concentration labels. 2. Draw and write figure 5-1 on page 97. Title it “Diffusion” and show a concentration gradient in the center picture 3. Draw and write table 5-1 on page 99. 4. Draw and write figure 5-3 on page 100. Draw the five sided cell and the cell to its left. Label your sketches hypotonic and hypertonic. 5. Draw and write figure 5-4 on page 100. Remember to label each sketch. 6. Draw and write figure 5-5 on page 101. Write what is happening in each step by its sketch.
 * 1) 38 5-1 Passive Transport Sketches

11/2 Passive Transport I. Diffusion 1, 2, 3, 4 A. Diffusion Across Membranes 1, 2 II. Osmosis 1, 2 A. Direction of Osmosis 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 B. How Cell Deal with Osmosis 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 III. Facilitated Diffusion 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 IV. Diffusion Through Ion Channels 1, 2, 3
 * 1) 37 5_1 Outline (text page 97)

10/28- 10/29- 10/30 Cell Organelles and Features I. Plasma Membrane A. Membrane Lipids 1,2,3,4 B. Membrane Proteins 1,2,3,4,5,6,7 C. Fluid Mosaic Model 1,2 II. Nucleus 1,2,3,4,5,6,7 A. Nuclear Envelope 1,2,3 B. Nucleolus 1,2 III. Mitochondria 1,2,3,4 A. Mitochondrial DNA 1. IV. Ribosomes 1,2,3 V. Endoplasmic Reticulum 1,2 A. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum 1,2,3,4 B. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum 1,2,3,4 VI. Golgi Apparatus 1,2,3,4 VII. Vesicles 1. Large vesicles usually involving storage are called vacuoles 2,3 A. Lysosome 1,2,3,4 B. Peroxisomes 1,2,3 C. Other Vesicles 1,2,3 D. Protein Synthesis 1,2,3,4,5 VIII. Cytoskeleton 1,2,3,4 A. Microtubules 1,2 B. Microfilaments 1,2 C. Intermediate filaments 1,2 D. Cilia and Flagella 1,2,3,4 E. Centrioles 1,2,3,4
 * 1) 36 4_3 Outline

Extra Credit:


 * Outline: Molecules of Life, pages 55-60


 * Outline: Water and Solutions, pages 39-44


 * Outline: Composition of Matter, pages 31-34


 * Outline: Science as a Process, pages 13-19

1. label organelles 2. Prokaryote vs. Eukaryote 3. Animal vs. Plant (Include information about the centrioles)
 * Comparing Cells Poster, page 90

(Include information on cilia, flagella, and centrioles)
 * Structure of the Cytoskeleton Poster, page 84

(Outline page 86)
 * How Cells Secrete Protiens Outline

(Outline page 58)
 * Preventing Diabetes